Ecological anthropology focuses upon the complex relations between people and their environment. Human populations have ongoing contact with and impact upon the land, climate, plant,and animal species in their vicinities, and these elements of their environment have reciprocal impacts on humans (Salzman andAttwood 1996:169). Ecological anthropology investigates the ways that a population shapes its environment and the subsequent manners in which these relations form the population’s social, economic, and political life (Salzman andAttwood 1996:169). In a general sense, ecological anthropology attempts to provide a materialist explanation of human society and culture as products of adaptation to given environmentalconditions (Seymour-Smith 1986:62).
In The Origin of Species (1859), Charles Darwin presented a synthetic theory of evolution based on the idea of descent with modification. In each generation, more individuals are produced than can survive (because of limited resources), and competition between individuals arises. Individuals with favorable characteristics, or variations, survive to reproduce. It is the environmental context that determines whether or not a trait is beneficial. Thomas R. Malthus (see Leading Figures) had an obvious influence on Darwin’s formulations. Malthus pioneered demographic studies, arguing that human populations naturallytend to outstrip their food supply (Seymour-Smith 1986:87). This circumstance leads to disease and hunger which eventually put alimit on the growth of the population (Seymour-Smith 1986:87).
The word “ecology” is derived from the Greek oikos, meaning habitation. Haekel coined our modern understanding of ecology in1870, defining it as “the study of the economy, of the household,of animal organisms. This includes the relationships of animals with the inorganic and organic environments, above all the beneficial and inimical relations Darwin referred to as the conditions for the struggle of existence” (Netting 1977:1). Therefore, an ecosystem (see Principal Concepts) consists of organisms acting in a bounded environment.
As a reaction to Darwin’s theory, some anthropologists eventually turned to environmental determinism (see Principal Concepts) asa mechanism for explanation. The earliest attempts at environmental determinism mapped cultural features of human populations according to environmental information (for example,correlations were drawn between natural features and human technologies) (Milton 1997). The detailed ethnographic accounts of Boas, Malinowski, and others led to the realization that environmental determinism could not sufficiently account for observed realities, and a weaker form of determinism began to emerge (Milton 1997).
At this time, Julian Steward coined the term “cultural ecology” (see Principal Concepts). He looked for the adaptive responses to similar environments that gave rise to cross-cultural similarities (Netting 1996:267). Steward’s theory centered around a culture core, which he defined as “the constellation of features which are most closely related tosubsistence activities and economic arrangements” (Steward1955:37).
By the 1960s and 1970s, cultural ecology and environmental determinism lost favor within anthropology. Ecological anthropologists formed new schools of thought, including the ecosystem model, ethnoecology, and historical ecology (Barfield 1997:138). Researchers hoped that ecological anthropology and the study of adaptations would provide explanations of customs and institutions (Salzman and Attwood 1996:169). Ecological anthropologists believe that populations are not engaged with the total environment around them, but rather with a habitat consisting of certain selected aspects and local ecosystems (Kottak 1999:23-4). Furthermore, each population has its own adaptations institutionalized in the culture of the group, especially in their technologies (Salzman and Attwood 1996:169).
A field such as ecological anthropology is particularly relevant to contemporary concerns with the state of the general environment. Anthropological knowledge has the potential to inform and instruct humans about how to construct sustainable ways of life. Anthropology, especially when it has an environmental focus, also demonstrates the importance of preserving cultural diversity. Biological diversity is necessary for the adaptation and survival of all species; culture diversity may serve a similar role for the human species because it is clearly one of our most important mechanisms of adaptation.